Dens and nests

Plague (rainbow) skink

Unlike most native skinks, which give birth to live young, plague skinks lay eggs (that is, they are oviparous).  Each female may lay 3-7 eggs, several times per year, but commonly between September and April.  Eggs are white, oval shaped and typically less than 10 mm long and 5 mm in diameter.  The shell is smooth, leathery and may have a pinkish-coloured hue beneath the surface.  Within a population of plague skinks, many of the females may lay their eggs in the same place – this is called a ‘communal clutch’.  The largest communal clutch recorded in New Zealand contained almost 3000 eggs. 

Eggs may be found almost anywhere but are commonly found in gardens beneath pot plants, in compost, under sheets of corrugated iron and anywhere that may provide protection for the eggs until they hatch, approximately 40-60 days after being laid.

Can be confused with:

There is one native New Zealand egg-laying skink species, the Suter’s skink, also known as the diving skink or the egg-laying skink. Its eggs are unlikely to be confused with those of the plague skink, as Suter’s skinks are range-restricted to only a few North Island mainland and island locations, and primarily inhabit boulder beaches and rocky platforms within the intertidal splash zones. Therefore, this species is unlikely to be found in places where plague skinks occur.

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Mouse

House mice dig small burrows for nests or make nests underneath logs or in wall linings in buildings. The very small entrance holes and the small tooth marks left on timber in buildings will identify the species as a mouse.

Can be confused with:
Other rodents, but the entrance holes, footprints, and tooth marks made by other species will be wider.

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Kiore

Food remains can be found around tree roots where kiore like to feed. They will dig small scrapes looking for food, but do not burrow. Kiore make nests in tree holes, behind loose bark and in tree stumps.

Can be confused with:
Other rat species.

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Ship Rat

Ship rats are mainly arboreal (they live up in the trees) and do not create trails. Their dens are normally in epiphytes or tree hollows but if suitable locations are not available they will dig small burrows or create loosely woven nests out of twigs and leaves in hedgerows and young trees. Feeding platforms and larders/caches are created in sheltered areas such as under logs or in trees on old bird nests.

Can be confused with:
Possum damage to fruits and flowers. Other rat species can also have larders, but these are usually on the ground.

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Norway rat

Norway rats dig burrows 60-90 mm in diameter underneath rocks or tree roots, alongside buildings or in the banks of watercourses. The excavations can leave piles of soil and rubble around the burrow entrance. Food may be hoarded in burrows and discarded; inedible items may be present around the burrow entrance.

Can be confused with:
Burrows may be mistaken for rabbit burrows but rabbits generally have many burrows in one area and the entrances are larger.

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Possum

Possums sleep (during the day) in holes (called dens) above the ground, in hollow tree branches or building ceiling cavities, or at or below ground level.  A possum can have several dens and can change dens several times per night.

Can be confused with:

Dens can be used by a range of species; you will need to check for fur, footprints and smell to see if possum was one of these.

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Rabbit (European)

Rabbit warrens are very distinctive. There will normally be several burrow entrances with varying amounts of bare earth around them. Rabbit droppings will almost certainly be present and you may see rabbits nearby. Areas of bare earth may show signs of rabbit digging, so any bare earth within an area should be checked for signs of rabbit presence.  Each warren contains a complicated network of tunnels leading to several burrow entrances at ground level. Separate blind-ended burrows can also be used as a quick way to escape predators.

Can be confused with:

Hares do not create burrows; instead, they make small scrapes in long grass where they rest during the day. Sometimes, Norway rats create burrows but these will be smaller than rabbit burrows. Some burrowing seabirds create burrows that could be confused for a rabbit warren but there is usually little overlap in distribution between burrowing seabirds and rabbits.

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Brown hare

Unlike rabbits, hares do not dig burrows. Instead, they rest above ground in a ‘form’. Forms may be temporary or well-used sites but hares often rest in any suitable place and often move from one form to another. A form is created by scraping away the vegetation and the hare will lie down on the bare earth. This shallow depression (approximately 200 × 400 mm) is usually a bit deeper and wider at the back than the front. Forms are often made in the shelter of a grass tussock or a rock to gain some protection from the wind. If the form is unsheltered, the hare will face downhill or with their back towards the wind. Forms used to give birth to young may be lined with fur that the mother has plucked from her own coat.

Can be confused with:

Wallabies and deer can also create temporary resting sites in grassland. Theirs are likely to be larger than those created by a hare although the resting places of very young deer may be of a similar size.

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Dama wallaby

Dama wallabies are primarily nocturnal (come out during the night) and they rest during the day in forest or scrub. They often live in small groups consisting of a dominant male along with subordinate males, females and juveniles. Nesting sites may show multiple body imprints.

Can be confused with:

Dama wallaby nest sites could be confused with those of deer. Check for distinguishing footprints and hair.

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Bennett's (red-necked) wallaby

Bennett’s wallabies make dens in secluded thickets of scrub and flax or under logs. The dens are often lined with leaves and moss. Dens are more commonly used by female wallabies as daytime refuges from which they emerge at night to graze and, in season, mate. Dens are not shared or defended. More open daytime resting sites are sometimes found in grassy clearings in the forest or amongst tussocks and flax at higher altitudes. These more open nest sites are more commonly used by males than females.

Can be confused with:

Other species make dens or nests including possums, feral cats and deer species. Look for other clues such as droppings, fur, footprints, smell or animal sighting to help identify the species.

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Rusa (Javan) deer

Sometimes in clearings with dense bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), Rusa deer will make bedding sites. These may be connected by tunnel-like trails through the bracken.

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Pig

Feral pigs build and use farrowing nests (for giving birth to young) and loafing beds (adult resting sites), although these can be difficult to tell apart. Examples include depressions in the ground lined with grass, bracken, or fern, and flattened areas within dense bracken. They may be located at the base of a tree or underneath a log or bank.

Can be confused with:
Farrowing nests and loafing beds may be confused with resting sites within thick cover used by deer and feral goats. However, deer and feral goats are not known to line resting sites with vegetation.

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Hedgehog

Hedgehogs’ dens are used for three purposes; as daytime retreats during the active season; breeding nests for females and young; and for hibernating during winter.  They build nests on dry well drained sites where they can build an oval chamber in loose soils or leaf-matter.  Nests are often found against a supporting structure such as fallen logs, against buildings or beneath a large shrub.  Hedgehogs will usually have several day-time nests, and these are sometimes utilised by other hedgehogs when not occupied.

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Cat

Cats make nesting dens. These are not permanent and are regularly changed, unless there is a lack of alternative sites. However, the natal den is used until kittens are 5-6 weeks old (c.500g in weight) before regular shifts commence.

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Weasel

Weasels are relatively rare in New Zealand and few dens have been observed. Overseas, they are known to kill surplus prey and store them in caches.

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Stoat

Stoat dens are usually very hard to find but, occasionally, they are found in places like wood piles or buildings. There is usually a pile of droppings (latrine) nearby and the den may be lined with rodent hair or bird feathers. Prey remains and carcasses are also likely to be present. The den owner may not be present as they have several dens within their range, only visiting each one for brief intervals.

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Ferret

Ferrets typically den in rabbit burrows. The previous occupants have usually provided a meal. They can also den in and under buildings, such as hay barns. As with other mustelids, individual ferrets may have several dens within their home range. Normally, ferrets stick to themselves but, occasionally, they have been observed to share dens.

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Rainbow lorikeet

Rainbow lorikeets nest in a hollow limb or hole in a tree up to 25 m above the ground, with a layer of wood dust at the bottom. The two (rarely three) white eggs are laid on the wood dust 0.5-1.5 m in from the entrance to the hole.

Can be confused with:

Other birds such as native parakeets, kaka, kingfisher and introduced starlings also use holes for nesting.

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Australian magpie

Nests comprise a bulky platform of twigs, leaves, and can include man-made materials such as wire. The nest is lined with softer materials such as grass and wool.  It is usually high up in a tall tree; in the canopy or on a major side branch.  Preferred tree species are pines, macrocarpas and gums. Native trees such as tawa and southern beech are also used.

Nest building begins in June, in New Zealand. Normally a single clutch of eggs is produced per year: two to five light blue or greenish eggs, oval in shape and about 30 × 40 mm.  The colour and patterning of the eggs is highly variable between birds.

Can be confused with:

Australian magpie nests could be confused with those of rooks and kereru.  However, rook nests tend to occur in groups (known as rookeries) and kereru nests are much more flimsy in construction. Note, too, that rooks are mainly found in the southeast of the North Island compared to magpies' more widespread distribution. The eggs of some other bird species in New Zealand are also bluish-green but are smaller than those of magpies.

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Rook

Rooks can form large breeding colonies of several hundred birds, called rookeries, where (in New Zealand) they live from approximately August to mid-December. They generally build their rookeries in large isolated tall trees such as pine or eucalyptus. Both the rookeries and the nests are an easily recognised sign that rooks are present. The nest is typically a large untidy platform of twigs, lined internally with smaller twigs.

Can be confused with:

Rook nests could potentially be confused with nests of some shag species since they also nest communally in large trees. However, the fishy smell of a shag colony will distinguish it from that of a rookery and shags are more likely to nest close to waterbodies and the sea. Lone rook nests could be confused with those built by magpies which make nests in a similar way.

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Canada goose

Canada geese usually locate their nests on elevated areas near water such as streams, lakes, ponds. Nests usually have a good view so the nesting adult can see any predators approaching. The nest is sometimes simply a depression in the ground lined with down but is often built up with grasses, rushes, sticks and other material. Pairs will nest singly but are often in loose colonies. Five eggs are laid on average but up to 10 in a nest have been reported. Laying is generally during September to October in New Zealand. Canada geese usually lay one clutch of eggs but second clutches have been reported. The white eggs measure approximately 88 mm long by 58 mm in diameter and weigh approximately 200 g.

Can be confused with:

The nests of other large waterfowl species, especially other goose species. The eggs of black swans are much larger and a pale blue colour.

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